Independent Researcher, Croatia

*Corresponding author: Siniša Franjić, Independent Researcher, Croatia, Email: [email protected]

Received Date: May 11, 2024

Published Date: June 05, 2024

Citation: Franjić S. (2023). Vaccines Against COVID-19 Effectively Prevent the Disease. Mathews J Immunol Allergy. 8(1):28.

Copyrights: Franjić S. © (2024).

ABSTRACT

Vaccines against the disease COVID-19 are intended to prevent the disease COVID-19 caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The disease COVID-19 can cause death or the development of further diseases with as yet unknown long-term health consequences for people of all ages, including otherwise healthy individuals. Safe and effective vaccines are needed to protect individuals from the disease COVID-19, especially healthcare workers and at-risk groups, such as the elderly and chronically ill. Vaccines work by preparing the human immune system to recognize and defend against a particular disease. Scientists have developed several types of vaccines against the disease COVID-19, using a number of different technologies.

Keywords: COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Coronavirus, Vaccines, Health.

INTRODUCTION

The history of immunization improvement ranges centuries [1]. At to begin with, entire pathogens were utilized as antibody specialists, either inactivated or constricted, to diminish harmfulness in people. Security and tolerability were expanded by counting as it were particular proteins as antigens and utilizing cell culture strategies, whereas novel immunization procedures, like nucleic acid- or vector-based immunizations, hold tall guarantee for long-standing time. Immunizations have by and large not been utilized as the primary tools in flare-up reaction, but this might alter since progresses in therapeutic innovation within the final decades have made the concept of creating immunizations against novel pathogens a realistic strategy. Meandering the unfamiliar region of a novel pathogen, severe intense respiratory disorder coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), we are able learn from other human Betacoronaviridae that developed within the final decades, SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV. We are able distinguish the foremost likely target structures of insusceptibility, set up creature models that imitate human infection and resistance as closely as conceivable, and learn approximately complex instruments of safe interaction such as cross-reactivity or antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE).

DNA AND RNA

Nucleic acid-based vaccines (DNA or RNA) which utilize hereditary fabric from a disease-causing pathogen have the potential to inspire an safe reaction against the antigens [2]. In both cases these antibodies can give enlightening to deliver particular proteins from the pathogen, which the safe framework recognizes as an antigen. DNA- and RNA-based immunizations have been beneath improvement for decades against a few helpful and numerous irresistible infections, such as flu and Zika infection earlier to the COVID-19 pandemic. A few DNA immunizations are authorized for creature utilize, counting a horse vaccine against West Nile virus. The advancement of a antibody for the anticipation and transmission of the COVID-19 pandemic infection has been of foremost significance. Creating and testing a unused antibody regularly take several a long time. In any case, in less than 1 year after the hereditary arrangement of the SARS-CoV-2 infection was distributed, two pharmaceutical companies connected for US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) crisis utilize authorization of antibodies that were exceedingly viable against the infection.

The primary delivery person ribonucleic acid (mRNA)-based immunizations were endorsed in December 2020 by the FDA through crisis utilize authorization within the USA.19 These antibodies are based on the mRNA antibody stage and were items, comprising syntheticmRNA strands encoding the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein, bundled in lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) to convey mRNA to cells. Safety and viability trials detailed tall adequacy rates of 94-95% after two interval dosages, in conjunction with constrained side impacts and a moo rate of antagonistic responses. Current information illustrate that the as of now endorsed mRNAbased COVID-19 vaccines are secure and successful for most of the populace. This breakthrough innovation, which makes resistance employing a diverse instrument compared with conventional vaccines, is one reason why the COVID-19 vaccine inquire about, testing, manufacture, clinical improvement, and administrative strategies took less than 1 year. Be that as it may, decades of spearheading inquire about endeavors and incremental innovative progresses by different bunches and organizations counting both the scholarly world and industry have upheld mRNA antibody advancement. Usually one reason why researchers were able to begin testing such immunizations against COVID-19 at breakneck speed.

One of the focal points of the mRNA-based antibodies, especially amid pandemics, is that it is moderately fast and simple to plan a vaccine against any of its protein antigens. For occasion, the mRNA vaccines against COVID-19 entered clinical trials inside some months of the SARS-CoV-2 genome being sequenced. Once DNA encoding the antigen has been chemically synthesized, it is embedded into a bacterial plasmid with the assistance of particular proteins. Different duplicates of the plasmid might be created on a huge scale, before being confined and purified. RNA-based vaccines are moderately clear to deliver, utilizing well-established chemical synthesis procedures.

Infusion of nucleic acids, i.e., plasmid deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), inspired an safe reaction, a finding afterward rehashed for ribonucleic corrosive (RNA) [1]. Once the required grouping of bases is known, these "naked" nucleic acid (DNA/RNA) vaccines are easy and speedy to produce in expansive amounts, and, since a cell-free enzymatic translation response is utilized, quality and security are progressed. After cell section, utilizing the host's intracellular apparatus, the required protein is deciphered, either straightforwardly from RNA or after translation of messenger RNA (mRNA) from the infused DNA. When antigen-presenting cells like dendritic cells display these peptides through major histocompatibility complex (MHC) atoms, a powerful reaction of both humoral and cellular resistance can be inspired. Other than, outside nucleic acids are also recognized by parts of the natural resistant framework, such as toll-like receptors (TLR) that will too trigger cellular resistant reactions. In spite of these hypothetical concepts, DNA-based vaccines have so distant demonstrated to be not especially immunogenic, regularly requiring numerous booster inoculations to counter a fast winding down of insusceptibility. As of late, novel conveyance innovations like electroporation and enactment of natural insusceptibility have increased the adequacy of DNA antibodies. Another potential downside is that, at slightest hypothetically, DNA-based antibodies may coordinated into the host's genome, causing changes or new diseases.

RNA-based vaccines would not be inclined to the last mentioned concern since human cells need the capacity of turn around translation, and over time, RNA is basically debased inside cells. Be that as it may, due to omnipresent RNases, RNA atoms are also rapidly debased in extracellular environment. It requires the definition of target RNA groupings in lipid nanoparticles, which moreover encourage cell passage. Be that as it may, as with DNA, the immunogenicity actuated is moderately low, so expansive sums of RNA are required to set up an satisfactory safe reaction. An change was proposed by the utilize of self-amplifying mRNA antibodies, containing both viral RNA and proteins for its replication (RNA-dependent RNA polymerases). Since these immunizations are missing the qualities encoding for the structural proteins that compose components just like the capsid, no unused virions are shaped. The collection of endless sums of replicons (strands of target RNA starting from a single originator arrangement) in one cell imitates a viral contamination and leads to a vigorous safe reaction, e.g., through the acknowledgment ofRNA by TLR. The amplification in vivo leads to lower dosages, usually in the microgram range. Self-amplifying mRNAs have shown to be safe and immunogenic in various animal models, including mice and nonhuman primates (NHP). However, no nucleic acid-based vaccine has yet been licensed.

DSOT

Four factors that impact the rate of transmission and contamination of COVID-19 are: duration, susceptibility, opportunity and transmission (DSOT) [3].

Term of infectivity (D) and defenselessness (S) to the illness are subordinate on the accessibility and adequacy of vaccines and helpful drugs. Within the early stages of the widespread, there were no demonstrated successful treatment to anticipate or to remedy the infection. Governments turn to extreme measures such as isolate and lockdown to check the spread of the infection. This has been somewhat loose with the presentation of inoculations. In any case, isolate is still required for universal guests in numerous nations.

Opportunity (O) for the disease to spread depends on the number of physical intuitive inside a community. Isolate and lockdown techniques are utilized to diminish such openings. At last, transmissibility (T) depends on proximity of intelligent. This is often overseen through control measures, such as physical separating and veil utilization. Early testing and following of cases, and the separation and isolate of known cases and their contacts, are compelling apparatuses to control the spread of the virus.

VACCINES AND VECTORS

The innovation of focused on recombination has as of now shown a number of highlights that will be fundamental for the improvement of coronaviruses as vectors for vaccination and treatment [4]. One is the capability of rendering these infections avirulent by the cancellation of specific qualities, as illustrated for MHV (mouse hepatitis virus) and FIPV (feline infectious peritonitis virus). Within the last mentioned case, infections missing either the 3abc or the 7ab quality cluster were without a doubt appeared to serve as live-attenuated vaccine candidates, since cats tainted with these mutants were ensured against consequent challenge with an something else deadly measurements of destructive FIPV. Second, the capacity to genetically improve coronavirus genomes gives a basic security resource, since it'll permit the development of vaccine or vector infections that, since of judiciously adjusted quality orders, ought to have vanishingly little probabilities of producing practical offspring through recombination with coronaviruses within the wild. Third, the potential to retarget coronaviruses by adjustment of their S proteins, on which the current have run selectionsystem for recombinant infections is additionally based, constitutes another imperative highlight that may be encourage created to empower the coordinating of vectors to predefined cellular surface antigens.

At last, for their utilize both as vectors and as carrier vaccines, the illustrated capacity of coronaviruses to consolidate and express outside qualities is clearly fundamental. Green fluorescent protein (GFP) was the primary nonviral protein to be communicated by a coronavirus. The recombinant MHV containing the GFP gene inserted in put of quality 4 developed as well as the wild sort did, but its level of GFP expression was destitute. A slightly diverse build containing the "enhanced" GFP quality, once more supplanting quality 4 but moreover within the setting of the upregulated TRS4 of pMH54, yielded a infection that reproduced as well as wild-type virus both in vitro and within the mouse central apprehensive framework. This infection produced fluorescence during disease in vitro and in mouse brain, and GFP expression was steadily kept up through at slightest six sections in tissue culture. In another think about luciferase quality expression cassettes were embedded at different positions within the MHV genome. Whereas the Renilla luciferase quality remained steady over eight entries, independent of its area, the firefly luciferase quality was misplaced very quickly as a result of the securing of erasures. Luciferase expression levels showed up to extend when the quality was situated closer to the 30 conclusion of the genome. In addition, the concurrent blend of both luciferase exercises from a single built infection illustrated the potential for the utilize of coronaviruses as multivalent expression vectors.

VACCINE DEVELOPMENT

Pandemics make a time weight to create vaccines as rapidly as possible, which concentrates the taken a toll of improvement over a exceptionally brief time window [5]. Given the devastating impacts of pandemics on the economy and health care frameworks, governments are frequently amazingly willing to commit capital to accelerate vaccine advancement. Government subsidizing will regularly be within the shape of thrust motivations (e.g., financing R&D (research and development) in creating modern vaccines) and drag motivations (e.g., within the shape of development buy assentions or other progress showcase commitments). However the select rights structure after administrative clearance or endorsement remains unaltered, and last vaccines are completely claimed by pharmaceutical companies, even those created with noteworthy government funding and collaboration.

In Europe, the European Commission joined powers with a few nations to gather inquire about subsidizing beneath the Coronavirus Worldwide Reaction, which strives for "universal get to to reasonable coronavirus inoculation, treatment and testing", as portion of the WHO's worldwide call for activity. Within the United States, venture in antibody improvement generally happened through a government activity known as Operation Warp Speed, in spite of the fact that execution was generally in conjunction with federal agencies such as the National Institutes of Health. Organizations inside the Department of Defense, counting the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, have verifiably been involved in immunization improvement as well; the previous organization contributed about $6 billion each to the Pfizer and Moderna COVID-19 mRNA vaccines.

Immunization R&D over the final few decades has to a great extent happened inside little and medium-sized companies. Subsequently, pushing vaccine candidates through clinical trials and scaling up generation is regularly subordinate on extra government subsidizing or securing by bigger firms; between 1990 and 2012, little and medium-sized companies accounted for 71 percent of Stage I vaccine trials but as it were 38 percent of Stage III trials. Numerous items will mull in the event that subsidizing runs dry or expansive antibody producers decrease to conduct advance thinks about or seek after an MA. For developing irresistible maladies, this has truly been named the "valley of death." Indeed with an urgent thrust to create a vaccine "as was the case with the Ebola epidemic disappearing intrigued within the confront of a geologically restricted episode can result within the racking of vital ventures earlier to clinical testing and approval.

To date, this has not been the story of COVID-19 vaccines. Worldwide R&D endeavors and development showcase commitments have yielded a few promising immunizations, but the issue of elite rights has tragically been pushed aside. Separated from the reality that the vaccine itself is subject to obvious security and/or administrative exclusivities, numerous of the COVID-19 vaccines are based on exclusive stages. Moderna contains a expansive obvious portfolio covering their mRNA antibody stage, gloating on its site that it "has been allowed over 100 licenses within the United States, Europe, Japan and other wards, ensuring crucial developments within the mRNA therapeutics space, with a few hundred extra pending obvious applications covering key propels within the field." Comparable obvious libraries ensure the Pfizer/BioNTech and CureVac mRNA stages, to the degree that "Moderna, CureVac, BioNTech and GSK collectively claim about half of the mRNA vaccine obvious applications." Exchange secrets will moreover play an imperative part when it comes to vaccine fabricating strategies.

Centering on administrative exclusivities, ready to observe distinctive elements in Europe and the United States. All vaccines, as unused natural products, will be able to advantage from administrative exclusivities. In Europe, all immunizations endorsed have gotten conditional advertise endorsement; the administrative eliteness period of 8+2 a long time begins running instantly. Within the United States, the immunizations that have as of now gotten an EUA take after a distinctive administrative way. A Biologics Licensing Application (BLA) would secure changeless administrative endorsement of the antibody by the FDA, but EUAs are brief and regularly terminate once the open health crisis closes.

RESEARCH

Research for vaccine improvement was too quickened in numerous nations, especially in China, Russia and USA [6]. As weight on healthcare frameworks and economies mounted, phenomenal measures were put in place. In USA, a venture, Operation Warp Speed, was started for subsidizing and creating an viable vaccine. The European Commission moreover financed a few candidates. At a virtual summit in May 2020 facilitated by the European Union, approximately 8 billion USD were promised for vaccine research. The WHO and other multilateral teach such as the World Bank centered on financing and fabricating COVID-19 immunizations for worldwide utilize and their reasonable assignment among nations. In June 2020, the WHO-CEPI (Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations) and GAVI (The Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunizations) propelled COVAX, a worldwide activity pointed at conveying two billion immunization dosages by the conclusion of the taking after year. As of 30 June 2020, there were over 125 immunizations in preclinical testing, 11 in Stage 1 (security trials), 8 in Stage 2 (expanded trials), 3 in Stage 3 (viability trials) and 1 which got endorsement for constrained utilize. These antibodies were of distinctive types - Genetic-vaccines, Viral-vector vaccines, Protein-based, Whole-virus vaccines and Re-purposed vaccines.

The primary human trial in USA started in Seattle in Walk 2020 with a vaccine by Moderna, Inc., which got endorsement for crisis utilize within the nation, and by a few others in Europe after large-scale trials found it to beexceedingly compelling. By 30 April 2020, Oxford University's Jenner Founded entered into organization with British-Swedish Company AstraZeneca for COVID-19 immunization improvement and conveyance. Pfizer, Inc. based in New York and German company BioNTech in collaboration with Chinese sedate producer Fosun Pharma begun their Stage 3 clinical trials in July 2020. Johnson & Johnson declared begin of Phase1/2 trials in July 2020. Beijing approved four immunizations which were utilized afterward by other countries. In an endeavor to quicken antibody improvement, Russia affirmed immunizations indeed before large clinical trials were completed. In May 2020, the Gamaleya Research Institute of The study of disease transmission and Microbiology reported that it had created the vaccine without serious side effects. Phase 1 security trial started on 18 June 2020 for Sputnik V. Meanwhile, India's indigenous inactivated vaccine, Covaxin by Bharat Biotech, created in collaboration with the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) - National Institute of Virology, was affirmed for Stage 1/2 clinical trials by the Drug Controller General of India on 29 June 2020.

In a surge to create vaccines, it was affirmed by vaccine doubters and anti-vaccine bunches that the adequacy of the proposed intercessions on more seasoned populace was being dismissed. There were too questions around how countries would resolve the pressure in apportioning them across different age groups. Whereas governments expelled such concerns and got active putting political weight to quicken vaccine development and their accessibility to the open, caution was raised approximately the potential hurt on the off chance that they were not legitimately confirmed. The concerns were advocated given the reality that antibody advancement is an strenuous handle, ordinarily taking almost 10-15 a long time on normal to achieve their expressed objective. The quickest immunization to control mumps was created in 1967 and took four a long time. By differentiate, COVID antibody advancement was assisted at an disturbing speed. In USA, open health and therapeutic specialists communicated concerns that the FDA might favor vaccines that were not appropriately vetted under political weight to create them accessible to the open, and an unconfirmed and hurried discharge might influence future vaccine advancement ventures. The net impact of such contentions and questions was to smash the certainty on science. There was concern that the field of pharmaceutical was held by a "superinfection of sorts" which was coming about in overlooking of longstanding standards of evidence-based pharmaceutical, deserting of rationale and clear-headedness, and bringing down the bar for receiving dubious benchmarks of care. Discussions around hydroxychloroquine and gaining strength plasma, appeared to diminish COVID-19 to an "anecdotal epidemic" which was encourage amplified by news, media, therapeutic diaries and political pioneers to form sense of the illness.

FINANCE

The COVID- 19 pandemic offers a natural pilot opportunity [7]. Governments may set aside a multi- billion sum to remunerate the creation of significant modern vaccines and treatments. This whole would be conveyed among partaking items concurring to their evaluated affect on the pandemic over the ensuing two a long time, say, on condition that said items be sold without check- up and authorized taken a toll- free for bland make and deal.

We have moreover supported a much littler US$100- million pilot that, just like the Health Impact Fund itself, would not be malady- particular. Though too little to incentivize the complete improvement of indeed one unused pharmaceutical, this pilot would substantiate our approach by spearheading estimation and remunerate of wellbeing picks up. Innovators  "including noncommercial ones like Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative or TB Alliance" would be inquired to propose activities through which they seem accomplish extra health picks up in destitute nations or districts with an existing or unused pharmaceutical, estimated without check- up. They might propose an reasonable warm- steady or pediatric form of one of their medications, maybe, or a settled- measurements combination. The foremost promising four recommendations would be chosen and given three a long time for execution. Health picks up accomplished would at that point be evaluated, and the remunerate pool separated appropriately. Any such pilot would bring genuine health picks up to destitute populaces, who are particularly beneath- served by existing healthcare frameworks, and would expect and plan a permanent Health Impact Fund by appearing that wellbeing picks up can be dependably surveyed which pharmaceutical trend-setters are able and willing to convey them very fetched- successfully.

VACCINATION

The vaccine acceptance rate, characterized as the "degree to which people accept, question, or refuse vaccination" for COVID-19, changed in different countries [8]. For occurrence an broad study on the Arab populace, counting members from 23 Arab communities and 122 other countries, recommended the vaccine reluctance to be 83% and 81% in Arabs in and exterior the Arab locale, separately. Another worldwide overview portraying information from 17 nations appeared more than 90% immunization acknowledgment in nations like Australia, China, and Norway. In differentiate, tall immunization reluctance was detailed in countries like Japan, the United States, and Iran. Another multi-country think about from South Asia appeared that 66%, 65%, 74%, and 72% of respondents concurring to get immunization against COVID-19 were for India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan, separately. The broadly cited reasons for this aversion were the concern around the conceivable side impacts of vaccines, the seen damaging affect of COVID-19, conviction with respect to vaccine strength, doubt in health approaches, and sped up generation of antibodies. A few statistic variables moreover played a critical part, like age, gender, marital status, comorbidities, physical health status, health insurance, education, and socio-economic status. Mental components, such as risk perception, played a basic part in characterizing vaccine acknowledgment or reluctance against COVID-19. A few considers have detailed that the chance perception/disease seriousness is subordinate on an individual's purposeful to secure themselves by taking after preventive practicessuch as individual hygiene, direct contact with individuals, avoiding crowded places, vaccination, quarantine, and travel restrictions. Besides, uneasiness is another basic figure characterised as a discernment of chance. Such variables contribute to the understanding of hazard, which leads to a state of mental trouble and influences mental health and ensuing decision-making. In this way, a few factors are found to be related with the cognitive (hazard recognition, prosociality), emotional (COVID-19 fear), experiential (coordinate involvement of COVID-19, prudent practices adjusted, deception), and sociocultural (confidence in science, government, and restorative staff) aspects of the COVID-19 and are connected with vaccine reluctance.

One of the foremost solid open health mediations for constraining the scope of the widespread and limiting defilement hazard, infection limit, and passing is inoculation. Subsequently, it is basic to understand people's readiness to get inoculation and the components deciding vaccine acknowledgment and aversion. Considering the worldwide information on vaccine aversion, checking on the statistic and mental determinants contributing to antibody reluctance amid COVID-19 around the world gets to be related. Subsequently, taking after a efficient audit approach is centered on three fundamental questions: (a) the vaccine acceptance rate for COVID-19 for the common populace universally, (b) statistic factors that decide the vaccine reluctance/hesitancy for COVID-19 within the common population, and (c) mental components that decide the antibody reluctance/hesitancy for COVID-19 within the common populace.

Although the infection is usually mild in the general population, it can become a great threat for people affected by comorbidities, causing increased severe clinical manifestations and death [9]. Being affected by an active disease is a significant risk factor that increases the rate of infections and the likelihood of a worse outcome. As such patients affected by a rheumatic disease are a vulnerable group in need of special assistance. Data confirmed that about half of the rheumatologic patients (46%) who contracted the infection needed hospitalization, and 10% required invasive ventilation. An increase in mortality was also determined, with a risk of 50% more in the young female population. The main strategy pursued against COVID-19 has been the quick and effective development of vaccines to prevent this hard-to-treat illness. Globally, to limit the deaths caused by the pandemic, the common decision was to vaccinate the elderly and the frail population. Several studies have assessed the vaccine response reduction caused by rheumatologic patient’s therapy: corticosteroid therapy; TNF inhibitors; and anti-CD20 B-cell depleting therapy. Nonetheless, the risk of contracting SARS-CoV-2 and having a far worse outcome outweighs the risk of a wasted vaccine dose or the risk of a lower response rate. This common consensus led the major regulatory organizations and scientific societies worldwide to recommend the vaccination to immunocompromised patients and patients affected by rheumatologic diseases. Moreover, recent research developments have underlined the importance of a third additional vaccine dose in frail patients. This differs from the booster dose now recommended to the general population.

The appearance of the coronavirus has put the issue of pandemic control and sparing human lives within the to begin with put [10]. In parallel with the crisis, the results for the economy started to be considered. As the health crisis nears its end, financial issues are getting to be more common. These are greatly imperative issues since all divisions are interconnected, so stuns are exchanged from one segment to others. What must be done presently? From a health point of view, it is fundamental to discover an effective vaccine and an viable medicament that will prevent the spread of the contamination. From the financial angle of view, it is fundamental to plan the most excellent conceivable measures of financial arrangement and begin with their execution as before long as conceivable.

Amid the coronavirus pandemic, some individuals spread unconfirmed claims almost the harmfulness of the vaccine. These claims actuate fear and can imperil open health [11]. Deceiving data, experimentally problematic hypotheses, and unjustifiable claims that vaccines modify DNA or harm individuals who get it cause doubt of vaccines and lead individuals not to urge inoculated. Coronavirus is greatly unsafe and influences our way of life. Hence, the world investigate and therapeutic community has worked to create secure and viable vaccines and overseen to deliver them in record time. In spite of the direly required arrangement, vaccine generation candidates must experience a thorough assessment to offer the open as it were successful, secure and high-quality vaccines. Much obliged to the tremendous mobilization of assets and skill at all stages, the forms of development, evaluation and approval have been accelerated.

CONCLUSION

Vaccines against the disease COVID-19 have been proven to effectively and harmlessly prevent the disease COVID-19, especially its severe forms, the need for hospital treatment and death. Vaccines also reduce the incidence of post-COVID syndrome, which can develop after a mild to moderately severe form of COVID-19.

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